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Upon his ascension as Eastern Roman Emperor in 527 AD, Justinian I made reclaiming the former territories of the Roman Empire a primary objective. At the time, the empire controlled regions like the Balkans, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt, but vast areas in the West were occupied by Germanic kingdoms. Justinian worked to consolidate imperial authority and Roman law while simultaneously aiming to restore the old order of the Mediterranean. To achieve this, he employed capable generals such as Belisarius and Narses, utilizing both diplomacy and military might. First, he secured a temporary peace with the Sasanian Empire to the east, creating favorable conditions for a western campaign. He then launched his full-scale territorial recovery by attacking the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. His goal extended beyond mere conquest; he sought to secure key Mediterranean ports and granaries, thereby strengthening the empire's economic power and strategic position. This policy ultimately led to the re-establishment of Roman rule over North Africa, Italy, and parts of Hispania. It also carried symbolic weight, reaffirming Rome's historical dominance over the Mediterranean.

In 1148, upon arriving in Jerusalem, Louis VII and Conrad III discussed future military operations with the leaders of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The original objective of the Second Crusade was to recapture Edessa, but Edessa was already under Zengi's control, and the expeditionary force had significantly diminished. Therefore, the leaders sought a new target and chose Damascus, which was close to Jerusalem. Damascus was a crucial city in Syria and a center of politics and trade, so they believed capturing it would aid in the defense of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. However, Damascus was not always hostile to the Crusaders. In fact, there was a possibility of cooperation with the Crusaders at the time, leading some to oppose the attack. Nevertheless, driven by the need for military success, the Crusader leaders decided to proceed. In July 1148, the Crusaders marched towards Damascus. This decision was criticized for not adequately considering local political dynamics and later became a major cause of increased conflict within the Crusader ranks.

In 1147, the German army led by Conrad III departed eastward first. The large contingent passed through Hungary and the Byzantine Empire, arriving in Constantinople before moving into Asia Minor. However, tensions arose between the Byzantine Empire and the Crusaders during the march, and securing food and supplies proved difficult. Upon entering Asia Minor, the German forces were attacked by the Seljuk Turks. A battle took place near Dorylaeum in October 1147, where the Germans, unable to overcome the enemy's surprise attack and unfavorable terrain, suffered a major defeat. Many soldiers were killed or captured, and Conrad III retreated to Nicaea with the remaining troops. The defeat of the German army significantly weakened the Crusaders' strength from the outset of the expedition. At the time, Asia Minor was an unfamiliar region to European armies, and they were not accustomed to the local climate and terrain. The Seljuk army exploited these weaknesses, employing mobile attacks rather than direct confrontation. Consequently, the German army found it difficult to continue their originally planned large-scale advance and had to later join forces with the French army to move south again.

In 1147, the German army, led by Conrad III, departed eastward first. The large contingent traveled through Hungary and the Byzantine Empire to Constantinople before moving into Asia Minor. However, tensions arose between the Byzantine Empire and the Crusaders during the march, and they faced difficulties securing food and supplies. Upon entering Asia Minor, the German army was attacked by the Seljuk Turks. A battle occurred near Dorylaeum in October 1147, where the German forces, unable to overcome the enemy's surprise attack and unfavorable terrain, suffered a major defeat. Many soldiers were killed or captured, and Conrad III retreated to Nicaea with the remaining troops. The defeat of the German army significantly weakened the Crusaders' strength from the early stages of the expedition. At the time, Asia Minor was an unfamiliar region to the European forces, and they were not accustomed to the local climate and terrain. The Seljuk army exploited these weaknesses, employing mobile attacks rather than direct confrontation. Consequently, the German army found it difficult to continue their originally planned large-scale advance and had to later join forces with the French army to move south again.

When the news of the fall of Edessa reached Europe, Pope Eugene III began to organize a new crusade. In 1145, the Pope issued a papal bull appealing for participation in an expedition to defend the Holy Land and reclaim the lost region of Edessa. At this time, Bernard of Clairvaux traveled throughout various regions of Europe, preaching participation in the crusade, which further heightened interest in the expedition. King Louis VII of France decided to participate in the crusade, and Emperor Conrad III of the Holy Roman Empire also decided to embark on the expedition. Unlike the First Crusade, it was expected to be a much more organized expedition since the kings of Europe personally led their armies this time. However, the participants did not all have the same objectives. While some joined out of religious conviction, others considered royal authority, noble honor, political influence, and territorial expansion. As armies from various nations participated in a single expedition, issues of command and supply also became significant challenges. Thus, a large European force set out towards the East.

Following the First Crusade, Crusader states, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem, were established, but they continuously clashed with surrounding Islamic forces. The County of Edessa in the north, in particular, was in a more difficult position to defend than other Crusader states. In the mid-12th century, Zengi, who had seized Mosul and Aleppo, was expanding his influence within the Islamic world. In December 1144, Zengi attacked Edessa, breached the Crusader defenses, and captured the city. The fall of Edessa sent a major shockwave through the Crusader states. As Edessa was the first Crusader state established after the First Crusade, its loss meant more than just losing a single city. Jerusalem's defenses against attacks from the north also became vulnerable. Amidst this crisis, calls for a new crusade grew louder in Europe. This became the direct catalyst for the start of the Second Crusade.

In the Second Punic War, Hannibal crossed the Alps into Italy and achieved successive victories at the Trebia, Trasimene, and Cannae, plunging Rome into a severe crisis. However, Rome opted for a war of attrition, leveraging its vast manpower and alliance network, and managed to prevent Hannibal from causing a decisive political collapse in Italy. Meanwhile, Scipio, after securing Iberia, moved the war to Africa and ultimately defeated Hannibal at Zama. After the war concluded, Rome established itself as the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean. Carthage remained an independent state but faced significant restrictions on its military and diplomatic activities. As Carthage regained its economic strength, tensions with Rome escalated again, eventually leading to the Third Punic War. The Second Punic War was not merely a clash between Hannibal and Scipio, but a crucial process through which Rome grew from a regional power in Italy to the hegemon of the Mediterranean world. Despite Hannibal's brilliant tactical victories, the war ultimately ended in Roman triumph.

In 202 BC, at the Battle of Zama, the Roman army led by Scipio defeated Hannibal's Carthaginian forces. Hannibal attempted to break the Roman infantry with war elephants, but the Romans created passages between their lines to allow the elephants to pass through. Subsequently, Roman and Numidian cavalry drove out the Carthaginian cavalry, and in the latter half of the battle, they returned to attack the Carthaginian rear. Hannibal's army resisted to the end but was ultimately defeated. Carthage could no longer continue the war and requested a peace treaty with Rome. According to the peace treaty signed in 201 BC, Carthage had to cede most of its overseas territories and pay enormous reparations. Furthermore, they were forbidden from waging war without Rome's permission, severely restricting their military activities. Scipio earned the title 'Africanus' for his victory at Zama. Hannibal later participated in Carthaginian politics but eventually went into exile to escape Roman pressure. The Second Punic War ended with Carthage's defeat, establishing Rome's hegemony in the Western Mediterranean.

In 202 BC, at the Battle of Zama, the Roman army led by Scipio defeated Hannibal's Carthaginian forces. Hannibal attempted to break the Roman infantry with war elephants, but the Romans created gaps in their formations, allowing the elephants to pass through. Subsequently, Roman and Numidian cavalry drove out the Carthaginian cavalry, and in the latter half of the battle, they returned to attack the Carthaginian rear. Hannibal's army resisted until the end but was ultimately defeated. Carthage could no longer continue the war and requested a peace treaty with Rome. According to the peace treaty signed in 201 BC, Carthage had to cede most of its overseas territories and pay enormous reparations. Furthermore, its military activities were severely restricted as it could no longer wage war without Rome's permission. Scipio earned the title 'Africanus' for his victory at Zama. Hannibal later participated in Carthaginian politics but eventually went into exile to escape Roman pressure. The Second Punic War ended with Carthage's defeat, establishing Roman hegemony in the Western Mediterranean.

In 204 BC, Scipio landed in North Africa with the Roman army. He exploited divisions among Carthage's Numidian allies to form an alliance with Masinissa. The Numidian cavalry became a crucial support force for the Romans, thanks to their swift mobility. Scipio engaged in various battles and sieges in North Africa, directly pressuring Carthage's homeland. As the crisis escalated, Carthage ordered Hannibal to return from Italy. Hannibal left Italy, where he had stayed for a long time, and returned to Africa. However, due to the ongoing war, it was difficult for him to secure sufficient troops and cavalry. Carthage reorganized its army around Hannibal once more to prepare for a confrontation with the Romans. Scipio, too, combined Numidian cavalry with Roman infantry to prepare for a decisive battle. Both sides clashed at Zama in 202 BC. Hannibal deployed war elephants, but the Roman army countered by creating gaps between their formations, allowing the elephants' charge to pass through harmlessly.