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In mid-15th century England, the rivalry for the throne between the House of Lancaster and the House of York intensified. Both families were descendants of Edward III, but after Henry VI ascended the throne, political turmoil grew, leading to an explosion of conflict. Henry VI had lost English territories in the Hundred Years' War with France, and financial difficulties and noble discontent also increased. As the king repeatedly lost his ability to rule due to mental illness, Queen Margaret and Richard, Duke of York, clashed over political dominance. The 1450s even saw Jack Cade's rebellion, expressing dissatisfaction with the monarchy. The Duke of York pursued reforms of royal power and control over state affairs rather than directly claiming his right to the throne. However, as armed clashes between both sides continued, the political competition eventually escalated into a civil war. The subsequent Wars of the Roses were not a single continuous war but a long-term power struggle marked by repeated battles, truces, and changes in the monarchy. Consequently, the later conflicts were deeply intertwined not only with the monarchy itself but also with the realignment of noble factions.

William's conquest of England was not merely a military victory that began with the Battle of Hastings in 1066. For years afterward, William suppressed rebellions, redistributed land, and established his new royal authority through castles and administrative systems. A significant portion of the Anglo-Saxon nobility lost their lands, and Norman nobles became the new upper class, while the Church was also reorganized around Norman figures. The contact between Norman French and English profoundly influenced the English language's vocabulary and expressions in the long term. Stone castles and large-scale church construction also spread. Meanwhile, much of England's existing local administration and customs continued, merging with the new systems. Even after William's death in 1087, the Norman dynasty persisted, and the relationship between England and Normandy would significantly impact the future histories of Britain and France. Therefore, the conquest of 1066 was more than just a change of king; it became the starting point for long-term changes in England's aristocratic society, land system, administration, language, architecture, and foreign relations.

William's conquest wasn't a feat completed solely by the Battle of Hastings in 1066. For years after his coronation, he suppressed rebellions in the north and west, reshaped the composition of the nobility and the church, and expanded royal authority nationwide. Land redistribution and castle construction were key tools for establishing the new order. Furthermore, even after securing the English throne, William retained his title as Duke of Normandy, leading him to rule both regions separated by the English Channel. Consequently, England's politics and diplomacy became more closely intertwined with the various principalities of northern France. Even after William's death in 1087, the Norman dynasty he established continued. His sons, William II and Henry I, successively inherited the throne, solidifying Norman rule as a long-term dynastic system. The land ownership structure and aristocratic society formed during the conquest also influenced English politics for centuries to come. The changes of 1066 were more than just a change of dynasty; they fundamentally altered the nation's governing structure.

Following the Norman Conquest, William systematically surveyed England's land, population, and wealth to strengthen the foundation of royal authority. The result was the Domesday Book, completed in 1086. This record documented land ownership, land value, livestock, peasants, and resources in each region, becoming a crucial source for understanding the society and economy of England at the time. Based on this administrative system, William also reinforced feudal relationships where vassals swore loyalty to the king. Norman French, the language of the ruling class, was widely used in the court and aristocratic society, significantly influencing English vocabulary and expressions through contact. Church organization and castle construction also underwent changes. However, the Norman Conquest did not entirely abolish all existing institutions. A considerable portion of England's local administration and customs continued to be utilized under the new dynasty. Ultimately, William's rule established a new national order by combining Norman aristocracy and royal power upon the existing Anglo-Saxon administrative framework.

After conquering England, William gradually replaced the existing Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and distributed land to his supporters. Many nobles who participated in the resistance after Hastings had their lands confiscated, and Norman knights and nobles emerged as the new landowners. In this process, castles and fortresses were built throughout England, strengthening military control. Initially, many motte-and-bailey castles made of wood and earth were constructed, later evolving into stone fortifications. The Tower of London also became an important fortress symbolizing royal power after the Norman conquest. William also pushed for changes in the church organization. He replaced existing Anglo-Saxon bishops and abbots and appointed Norman clergy to important positions. These changes went beyond a mere dynastic shift, significantly altering England's ruling class and land structure. Simultaneously, as Norman culture and Anglo-Saxon society merged, long-term changes began to appear in language, administration, law, and architecture.

Even after William's coronation, resistance to Norman rule continued throughout England. The nobles and residents of the northern regions, in particular, did not readily accept the new king, and the situation became more complicated with the intervention of Danish forces. Starting in 1068, William sent troops to the north to suppress the rebellion, but the resistance did not end easily. In 1069, a large-scale rebellion broke out around York, and a Danish fleet also arrived on the English coast. William directly attacked the rebellious areas and seized York and surrounding strategic points. In the north, in particular, a brutal suppression took place, eliminating the rebels' food supplies and strongholds, which later became known as the 'Devastation of the North.' While specific figures for the scale of damage and exact casualties at the time are difficult to ascertain due to limited records, this campaign significantly weakened organized resistance in the north, and William's royal authority extended to northern England. The conquest had now moved beyond a simple change of throne to a restructuring of society as a whole.

Even after Harold's death at Hastings, all of England did not immediately submit to William. Some nobles and clergy attempted to crown a new king, and resistance forces rallied around London. However, with Harold's army having suffered heavy losses, it was difficult to continue an effective counterattack. Instead of marching directly to London, William strengthened his pressure by securing control of the southeastern regions and establishing supply lines. As the Norman forces approached the vicinity of London, England's prominent nobles and clergy moved towards accepting William as king to avoid further conflict. Ultimately, William was crowned King William I of England at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day in 1066. However, his coronation did not signify the completion of the conquest. Resistance against Norman rule continued in various regions, including the north and west. To firmly establish his royal authority, William continued his military campaigns and began to weaken the power of the existing Anglo-Saxon nobility.

In the Battle of Hastings, the English army formed a dense shield wall using the high ground. William's Norman forces first deployed infantry and archers, and used cavalry to pressure the flanks, but the English defensive line did not easily break. During the battle, when the Norman army appeared to retreat, some English soldiers broke formation to pursue, and William used this to counterattack. As this situation repeated, the English formation gradually weakened. As the sun began to set, the Norman army began to break through the shield wall, and King Harold was killed in action. The exact manner of Harold's death remains debated due to discrepancies between later records and the Bayeux Tapestry's depiction. However, it is clear that his death was a crucial turning point that shattered the English army's organized resistance. Victorious at Hastings, William secured a decisive military foundation to claim the English throne and subsequently advanced towards London.

While Harold was fighting the Norwegians in the north, William crossed the English Channel and landed in southern England. On September 28, 1066, the Norman forces arrived at Pevensey in Sussex, and William established a base near Hastings. He secured the surrounding areas and waited for Harold to descend. Harold's army moved quickly south after fighting the Battle of Stamford Bridge. On October 14, the two armies clashed near Hastings. The English army used the high ground to form a shield wall, while the Norman army attacked with a combination of infantry, archers, and cavalry. The battle raged from morning till evening, with neither side securing an easy victory. However, as the battle wore on, cracks began to appear in the English defense. William repeatedly committed his troops, pressuring the shield wall, and Harold's army gradually became exhausted. Ultimately, this battle would decide the fate of the Kingdom of England.

The crisis over the English succession in 1066 soon escalated into war. While Duke William of Normandy prepared his invasion, Harald Hardrada of Norway attacked northern England first. Harold Godwinson led his army north in haste and clashed with the Norwegian forces at the Battle of Fulford on September 20th. The battle was fought again on September 25th at Stamford Bridge. After a fierce fight, the English army defeated the Norwegians, killing Harald Hardrada. Harold succeeded in defending his kingdom but significantly depleted his troops and equipment. However, shortly after his victory, news arrived that William had landed in the south. Harold had to march south again with his army, with little time to rest. This long march and the series of battles became a crucial backdrop for the subsequent Battle of Hastings.