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By the mid-18th century, the 13 British colonies in North America had grown economically, but politically, they had no representation in the British Parliament. Tensions escalated, particularly after the Seven Years' War, when Britain imposed new taxes on the colonies to cover its massive war expenses. Acts like the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Townshend Acts were implemented, and the colonists argued that it was unjust for a Parliament, in which they had no elected representatives, to levy taxes. The British government viewed the colonies as part of the empire and emphasized Parliament's authority, but resistance spread throughout the colonies under the banner of 'No taxation without representation.' In 1773, when Britain granted the East India Company a monopoly on tea, colonial opposition intensified. The Boston Tea Party occurred the same year, pushing the confrontation between both sides to an irreversible point. Britain enacted strict control policies, and colonial representatives convened the Continental Congress to coordinate a joint response.

On June 18, 1815, Napoleon's French army clashed with the Anglo-Dutch-German allied forces led by the Duke of Wellington at Waterloo in Belgium. Napoleon attempted to break through the Allied defensive lines, but his attacks did not succeed easily. In the afternoon, Prussian forces under Blücher arrived on the battlefield, putting the French army in an even more disadvantageous position. Napoleon committed his Imperial Guard in a final effort, but they failed to breach the Allied lines, and the French army retreated. After the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated once again and was exiled this time to the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. In France, Louis XVIII was restored to the throne. The major European powers convened the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the post-war order, reshaping the political map of Europe to maintain a balance of power among the nations. The Napoleonic Wars influenced the spread of the ideals of liberty and equality, and the concepts of the citizen army and nation-state, which emerged from the French Revolution, throughout Europe. At the same time, nationalism and resistance against French conquest also intensified.

In 1814, the Allied forces advanced into French territory. Napoleon resisted in several battles but couldn't overcome the shortages in troops and supplies. As the Allies approached Paris, Napoleon found himself in a difficult position to defend the capital. In late March 1814, the Allied forces entered Paris, and Napoleon eventually accepted abdication. He was exiled to the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII of the House of Bourbon ascended to the throne in France. However, Napoleon's era was not entirely over. In March 1815, he escaped from Elba and returned to France. As soldiers and citizens joined him, Louis XVIII fled Paris, and Napoleon regained power. This period is known as the Hundred Days. The major European powers immediately mobilized armies against Napoleon. Napoleon planned to defeat the Allied forces individually before they could consolidate their strength. He advanced into Belgium and attacked the British and Prussian armies. On June 16, 1815, he defeated the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny, but he couldn't completely crush them.

Napoleon's relationship with Russia deteriorated over the Continental Blockade. Russia found it difficult to bear the economic losses from completely cutting off trade with Britain, while Napoleon took issue with Russia not adhering strictly to the blockade. Consequently, in 1812, Napoleon led a massive army of approximately 600,000 men on a campaign into Russia. The Russian army employed a strategy of retreating and destroying food and supplies to deny the French army access, rather than engaging in a decisive frontal battle. Both sides suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Borodino in September. Napoleon entered Moscow but failed to reach a peace agreement with the Russians. Ultimately, the French army had to retreat before the harsh winter set in. Cold, starvation, disease, and attacks by the Russian army rapidly increased French casualties. Having lost most of his grand army, Napoleon's military authority was significantly weakened. Seizing this opportunity, European nations allied once more to confront France.

Following his victory at Austerlitz, Napoleon rapidly expanded French influence across Europe. In 1806, he waged war against Prussia, securing victories at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt, after which French troops entered Berlin. Unable to directly invade Britain, Napoleon sought to block European nations from trading with the British. A prime example is the Continental System, enacted through the Berlin Decree in 1806, aimed at pressuring the British economy. However, European countries reliant on trade with Britain found it difficult to fully comply with the blockade. Russia, too, gradually grew dissatisfied with its cooperation with France. Meanwhile, Napoleon extended French influence into various regions, including Germany and Italy, and placed his family members and close associates on the thrones of different nations. These policies sparked resistance against France throughout Europe. In Spain, in particular, a large-scale rebellion erupted against the intervention of French troops. In 1808, Napoleon transferred the Spanish throne to his brother Joseph, but the French army became bogged down in a prolonged conflict due to the resistance from the Spanish populace and British forces.

After seizing power in France through a coup in 1799, Napoleon stabilized the nation and consolidated his authority through the Consulate. He reorganized the French state system by reforming administration and laws, and enacting the Napoleonic Code. Simultaneously, he expanded France's military influence across Europe. In 1804, Napoleon was crowned Emperor after a plebiscite, marking the birth of the French Empire. Nations like Britain, Austria, and Russia grew wary of France's expanding power. When Austria and Russia allied with Britain in 1805 to form the Third Coalition against France, Napoleon swiftly advanced towards Austria. In December 1805, the French army decisively defeated the combined Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz. This victory led to Austria's withdrawal from the war, and the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in the same year. However, Britain countered France at sea. The Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where the British fleet crushed the Franco-Spanish combined fleet, thwarted Napoleon's plans for an invasion of Britain.

After Robespierre's fall, radical Jacobin forces weakened in France, and a more moderate faction seized power. With the enactment of a new constitution in 1795, the Directory was established, and executive power was entrusted to five Directors. However, the Directory faced simultaneous challenges of political instability, economic hardship, and opposition from royalists and radicals. France was continuously at war with various European nations, and the military's influence grew. It was during this time that a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, gained fame through his military successes. His victories against Austria and its allies in the Italian campaign, in particular, earned him national popularity. Amidst the ongoing political turmoil of the Directory, Napoleon began to intervene directly in politics. In 1799, Napoleon, along with his colleagues, staged a coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory and establishing the Consulate. He became the First Consul, effectively becoming the supreme ruler of France.

In 1793, France was at war with several European nations externally, while internally, royalists and counter-revolutionary forces rebelled. The economic situation was dire, with persistent food shortages and rising prices. Amidst this crisis, the radical Jacobin faction seized political control. The revolutionary government, led by Maximilien Robespierre, implemented strict controls to protect the Republic. The Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee of Public Safety were established, leading to increased punishment for those who opposed or were suspected of opposing the revolution. This period, from 1793 to 1794, is commonly known as the Reign of Terror. Louis XVI's queen, Marie Antoinette, was executed, and rival factions within the revolution were systematically eliminated. Meanwhile, the French army, through conscription, organized a large-scale force and began achieving successes on the battlefield against the European coalition. However, as political repression escalated excessively, opposition to Robespierre grew. In July 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction occurred, leading to Robespierre's arrest and execution the following day.

Following the revolution, movements to establish a constitutional monarchy emerged in France. With the enactment of the 1791 Constitution, France became a constitutional monarchy where the king's powers were limited and the parliament held significant political authority. However, as conflicts with the revolutionary forces continued, Louis XVI attempted to flee the country with his family but was apprehended in Varennes and brought back to Paris. Distrust towards the king grew even stronger. Concurrently, European monarchies like Austria and Prussia, concerned about the spread of the French Revolution to their own nations, began waging war against France. Amidst war and economic hardship, public sentiment in Paris worsened, empowering radical revolutionary factions. In August 1792, the populace attacked the Tuileries Palace, effectively dismantling royal authority. In September, the monarchy was abolished, and the French Republic was established. Louis XVI was tried for treason and executed by guillotine in January 1793. The king's execution further provoked various European nations, leading France into wars with multiple countries.

In June 1789, representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, representing the French people. When Louis XVI attempted to block this, the representatives gathered in an indoor tennis court and swore not to disband until a constitution was established. This is known as the Tennis Court Oath. Rumors spread in Paris that the king would mobilize the army to suppress the National Assembly, increasing the citizens' anxiety. On July 14, Parisian citizens attacked the Bastille prison to secure weapons. Although the Bastille was not actually holding many political prisoners, its fall became a symbolic event of the revolution because it represented the despotism of royal authority. The revolution subsequently spread to the provinces, and in rural areas, peasants attacked nobles and resisted feudal rights. In August, the National Assembly decided to abolish feudal privileges and subsequently issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Principles such as liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty were presented, significantly shaking the existing class order of French society.