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In the late 18th century, France was in a severe financial crisis. National debt had significantly increased due to continuous wars since the era of Louis XIV, massive court expenditures, and especially support for the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War. The tax burden was primarily concentrated on the commoners, while the clergy and nobility enjoyed various privileges. French society at the time was divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The Third Estate, comprising the vast majority of the population, had very limited political influence. Enlightenment thinkers advocated for liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty, and the influence of the American Revolution had also spread throughout French society. Louis XVI attempted tax reforms to resolve the financial issues, but faced resistance from the nobility. Consequently, in May 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General, which had not met since 1614. However, conflicts arose over voting methods and representation, leading the Third Estate to declare itself a separate National Assembly. France's political crisis began to escalate into a direct confrontation between the monarchy and the people.

In 1452, England launched one last major counter-offensive and recaptured Bordeaux. However, the French army soon deployed a large force and attacked Aquitaine. On July 17, 1453, the two armies clashed at Castillon. The French army effectively utilized artillery in the battle, and the English army suffered heavy losses attempting to break through the French bombardment. The English commander, John Talbot, was also killed in this battle. After the defeat at Castillon and the subsequent loss of Bordeaux back to the French, England's control over Aquitaine ended. The only significant territory England retained in France was Calais. Although no official peace treaty was signed, no war on the scale of the Hundred Years' War occurred between the two nations after 1453. Therefore, the Battle of Castillon is generally considered the last major battle of the Hundred Years' War and its effective end. While competition between England and France continued, their relationship entered a new era.

Even after Joan of Arc's death, Charles VII steadily strengthened France's military power. He reformed the tax system and developed a standing army, enabling the royal court to maintain stable military capabilities. Meanwhile, England found itself increasingly burdened by the costs of maintaining its vast territories in France. A decisive shift occurred with the Treaty of Arras in 1435. Duke Philip III of Burgundy reconciled with Charles VII, effectively withdrawing from his alliance with England. England lost one of its most crucial allies in France. Subsequently, the French forces expanded their offensive, recapturing Paris, and securing most of Normandy after their victory at the Battle of Formigny in 1450. By 1451, they had also captured Bordeaux, the heart of Aquitaine. England found it increasingly difficult to maintain its influence over the French throne, which it had gained through the Treaty of Troyes in the early 15th century. The nature of the war transformed from a contest for the French crown to a French counteroffensive aimed at reclaiming its territories.

In the late 1420s, France's situation was dire. English and Burgundian forces controlled the north, and Charles VII's authority was limited to parts of the south. The siege of Orléans by the English army put the French monarchy at risk of collapse. It was then that a young woman from Lorraine, Joan of Arc, appeared. She told Charles VII that she had received a divine command to save France and joined the army. In 1429, the French army led by Joan of Arc successfully lifted the siege of Orléans. Following this, the French army achieved successive victories in the Loire Valley, and Charles VII proceeded to Reims to hold the traditional coronation ceremony for the King of France. This was a crucial event that strengthened Charles VII's legitimacy. Joan of Arc was later captured by the Burgundians in a subsequent battle, handed over to the English, and executed in Rouen in 1431. However, the resistance she inspired in France continued, and the tide of the war gradually began to turn in favor of France.

Following the Battle of Agincourt, Henry V continued his military campaigns in France. At the time, France was deeply divided internally within its royal family. The Burgundians and Armagnacs were in conflict for power, and England exploited these divisions. The Treaty of Troyes, signed in 1420, allowed Henry V to marry Catherine, the daughter of French King Charles VI, and recognized his right to inherit the French throne after Charles VI's death. Conversely, Charles, the son of Charles VI, was excluded from the succession. If the treaty proceeded as planned, the English crown had a chance to inherit the French throne. However, circumstances soon changed. Henry V died of illness during his French campaign in 1422, and shortly thereafter, Charles VI also passed away. The young Henry VI was crowned King of England and France, but he could not effectively rule all of France. In the south of France, forces supporting Charles VII continued to resist. Ultimately, the issue of royal succession returned to the center of the war.

In the late 14th century, both England and France were mired in political turmoil. In England, Richard II was deposed, and Henry IV ascended the throne. In France, the nobility's power struggles intensified as Charles VI's reign became unstable. Henry V, who became king in 1413, revived England's long-standing claim to the French throne. In 1415, he landed in France with his army. The French army pursued Henry's forces, leading to a battle at Agincourt. Although the French army had a significant numerical advantage, the battlefield had turned into a muddy quagmire after heavy rain, hindering the movement of heavily armored knights. The English army established a defensive formation and deployed longbowmen to attack the French. The repeated charges of the French knights proved ineffective, and the French army suffered immense casualties. Henry V achieved a decisive victory at Agincourt. This battle was a crucial event that laid the groundwork for England to once again threaten the French throne in the latter half of the Hundred Years' War.

Although England secured vast territories with the Treaty of Brétigny, France did not accept it as final. Upon ascending the throne in 1364, Charles V reorganized his military and finances, beginning the recovery of lost lands. He avoided large-scale frontal assaults, instead employing commanders like Bertrand du Guesclin to systematically attack English-occupied regions. The English forces, needing to maintain their extensive holdings, had to spread their troops across various areas, which the French army exploited to recapture castles and cities one by one. France achieved victory at the Battle of Pontvallain in 1370, and in 1372, the Franco-Castilian allied fleet defeated the English fleet at the Battle of La Rochelle. England lost a significant portion of the vast territories it had claimed in France. By 1377, with the death of Edward III and the ascension of the young Richard II, England's position had considerably weakened. A long-term truce was established between the two nations in 1389, temporarily halting the war. The initial English advantage was reversed by France's organized counteroffensive.

After the Battle of Crécy, the Black Death spread across Europe, temporarily dampening military activities in both nations. However, the issues of territory and the throne remained unresolved, and the war resumed. In 1350, Philip VI died, and John II became the King of France. In 1356, Edward the Black Prince of England launched a large-scale campaign in southwestern France. John II led the French army to pursue them, and the two armies clashed at Poitiers. Although the English army was outnumbered, they utilized the defensively advantageous terrain to repel the French attacks. French knights repeatedly charged but failed to break through the English longbowmen and defensive formations. Ultimately, the French army suffered a major defeat, and even John II was captured. The king being taken prisoner by an enemy nation was a tremendous political shock to France. Afterward, France had to deal with a massive ransom and territorial issues. The Treaty of Brétigny was signed in 1360, granting England significant territories within France and setting the terms for John II's release. However, the issue of royal succession itself remained unresolved.

Early in the war, Edward III launched a large-scale expedition against France. England secured control of the English Channel after a victory at the Battle of Sluys in 1340, and subsequently intensified its attacks on mainland France. In 1346, Edward III landed in Normandy and moved across northern France. When the French army, led by Philip VI, pursued them, the two armies clashed at Crécy on August 26, 1346. The English army established a defensive line on a hill and deployed longbowmen. French knights charged multiple times, but their attacks were ineffective due to concentrated longbow fire and unfavorable terrain. The French army suffered heavy casualties, and the English achieved a decisive victory. Following this, Edward III besieged and captured Calais in northern France. The Battle of Crécy demonstrated that victories were becoming difficult to achieve solely through the charge of heavily armored knights, and the importance of infantry and long-range weapons was growing. However, this did not signify France's defeat, and the war continued.

The backdrop to the Hundred Years' War, which began in 1337, included the issue of French royal succession and the English king's territories in France. Edward III of England, being the maternal grandson of Philip IV of France, claimed he had a right to the French throne. However, French nobles rejected Edward's claim, citing the principle that the throne could not be inherited through the female line, and recognized Philip VI of the House of Valois as king. The conflict between the two monarchs wasn't just about the succession. The English king held the Duchy of Aquitaine in France, and the French king sought to strengthen his control over the region. Economic interests related to trade with Flanders also clashed. In 1337, when Philip VI confiscated Edward III's French territories, Edward officially claimed the French throne and initiated the war. This conflict, marked by several truces and renewals, continued for over a century.