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In October 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, further expanding the scope of the war. After attacking the Russian fleet in the Black Sea, the Ottoman Empire initiated a war with Russia, leading Britain and France to also declare war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire's entry broadened the fronts to the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Dardanelles Strait. Britain fought the Ottoman Empire to protect its strategic interests in India and the Middle East, while Russia engaged Ottoman forces in the Caucasus region. The Allies attempted to break through the Dardanelles Strait and advance towards the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, but suffered heavy losses and retreated during the Gallipoli campaign in 1915. This battle involved not only British and French troops but also Australian and New Zealand forces. The Ottoman Empire's participation was a significant turning point, transforming the war from a European-centric conflict into a widespread international war encompassing the Middle East and Africa.

While the fighting on the Western Front became deadlocked, on the Eastern Front, Germany and Austria-Hungary were fighting the Russian army. Russia attacked German East Prussia and Austro-Hungarian territory faster than Germany expected. However, in August 1914, in the Battle of Tannenberg, the German army heavily defeated the Russian army, inflicting massive casualties. Subsequently, Russia succeeded in an offensive against Austria-Hungary in the Galicia region, occupying some territory. The Eastern Front saw much greater movement of fronts than the Western Front, with large-scale forces moving across vast areas. The Russian army had a large troop size but suffered from problems with weapons, ammunition, railways, and supply systems. Austria-Hungary, also an empire composed of various ethnic groups, faced difficulties in waging war. Germany had to support Austria-Hungary on the Eastern Front, and Russia's continued participation in the war placed a growing burden on Germany's troop deployment. The war on the Eastern Front would later have a significant impact on the Russian Revolution and Germany's major offensives.

In September 1914, German forces rapidly advanced towards Paris, the French capital. However, French and British troops launched a counteroffensive to halt the German advance. Both sides engaged in a large-scale battle near the Marne River, where the German advance was stopped. The Battle of the Marne became a crucial turning point, thwarting Germany's plan for a swift victory in France. The German army retreated and established defensive lines, and both sides repeatedly attempted to outflank each other. However, as a long front line formed from the North Sea to the Swiss border, the war began to shift from mobile warfare to trench warfare. Soldiers hid in trenches fortified with barbed wire, machine guns, and artillery, and the attacking side suffered immense casualties while gaining only limited territory. No decisive breakthroughs occurred on the Western Front for years afterward. Contrary to initial expectations of a short war, it devolved into a prolonged war of attrition, forcing both sides to commit ever-increasing numbers of troops and weaponry to the front lines.

In 119 BC, Emperor Wu of Han launched his most extensive expedition against the Xiongnu. Wei Qing and Huo Qubing led the campaign, with Wei Qing commanding cavalry and Huo Qubing infantry, advancing in different directions to pressure the main Xiongnu forces. The Han army prepared vast amounts of grain and horses for this long-range operation and deployed a large cavalry force to match the Xiongnu's mobility. During this expedition, Wei Qing engaged and defeated the main Xiongnu forces, while Huo Qubing pushed further north to attack their strongholds. As the battles continued, the Xiongnu retreated far from the Han borders, significantly enhancing Han's military superiority in the north. However, the expedition incurred immense costs and resulted in considerable losses of troops and horses. Nevertheless, the 119 BC expedition is regarded as a defining event in Han's offensive against the Xiongnu, demonstrating their capability to project military power beyond their borders.

One of the most famous generals during Emperor Wu's campaigns against the Xiongnu was Huo Qubing. At a young age, he led cavalry forces in operations that deeply penetrated the Xiongnu heartland. In 121 BCE, Huo Qubing advanced into the Hexi region, significantly weakening Xiongnu power and playing a crucial role in securing the Hexi Corridor. This region was a narrow, long passage connecting the Chinese heartland to the Western Regions, making it strategically invaluable. After securing the Hexi region, the Han Dynasty established commanderies such as Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan, and Dunhuang, expanding its control. Internal divisions also emerged within the Xiongnu, with some groups surrendering or defecting to the Han. The control of Hexi was significant not just for territorial expansion but also for securing a path for the Han Dynasty to advance into the Western Regions. Furthermore, trade with the Western Regions expanded during this process, leading to new changes in the Han Dynasty's diplomacy and economic activities.

Emperor Wu's campaigns against the Xiongnu primarily revolved around two generals: Wei Qing and Huo Qubing. In 129 BC, Wei Qing launched an attack on the Xiongnu, achieving significant victories. He subsequently led the Han army on numerous expeditions, rising to become a key commander on the northern frontier. Notably, in 127 BC, Wei Qing attacked the Hetao region, driving out the Xiongnu forces and securing control over the Ordos Loop. This area, where the Yellow River makes a large bend, was a crucial strategic point for agriculture, animal husbandry, and military defense. The Han Dynasty established commanderies and relocated residents to strengthen the northern defenses. These victories narrowed the Xiongnu's southern invasion routes and provided a foundation for the Han to sustain offensive operations in the north. Wei Qing's contributions marked a vital starting point for subsequent large-scale Han expeditions against the Xiongnu, enabling the Han to shift from merely defending against incursions to actively reducing the Xiongnu's operational space.

Chapter 5: Crusader States and the Legacy of War After capturing Jerusalem, the leaders of the Crusades established new political entities centered around the conquered territories. The so-called Crusader states emerged with the formation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. However, these states were far from Europe and surrounded by Islamic forces, necessitating continuous military support. While the First Crusade achieved its military objective of capturing Jerusalem, it did not bring long-term stability to the Middle East. Instead, the establishment of the Crusader states created new conflicts between European and Islamic powers. Subsequently, the Islamic world saw a strengthened movement to reclaim territories from the Crusader forces, leading to the gradual pressure on the Crusader states from the mid-12th century onwards. The First Crusade became the starting point for numerous subsequent Crusades. New expeditions were also launched from Europe, and military and religious organizations developed to protect the Holy Land.

Chapter 4. The Capture of Jerusalem In 1099, the Crusaders finally marched south towards Jerusalem. At the time, Jerusalem was under the control of the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. After arriving around the city, the Crusaders besieged the walls, but the attack was difficult due to a lack of troops and provisions. They prepared for the assault by using timber brought from the coast to build siege towers and ladders. On July 15th, the Crusaders breached the walls and captured Jerusalem. During the conquest, a large number of Muslim and Jewish residents of the city were massacred, and this event further deepened the animosity between the Christian and Islamic worlds. The Crusaders achieved their goal of securing the Holy Land, but it came at a great human cost. The capture of Jerusalem was seen as a major religious victory in Europe, but it resulted in severe massacres and destruction locally. Subsequently, the Crusaders established a system of governance centered around the city and organized military forces to defend the Holy Land. However, stable control of the region required continuous manpower and supplies.

Chapter 3: Siege of Antioch The Crusaders continued their advance into Syria, but the expedition proved far more difficult than anticipated. The harsh climate, food shortages, disease, and rugged terrain took a heavy toll on both soldiers and horses. By the end of 1097, the Crusaders laid siege to Antioch, capturing the city in 1098 after a prolonged struggle. However, a large relief army led by Kerbogha of Mosul soon arrived, putting the Crusaders in danger of being trapped within the city themselves. Despite internal conflicts, the Crusaders broke through the siege lines and defeated Kerbogha's forces. Even after securing Antioch, leaders quarreled over the division of territory and control, which delayed their journey to Jerusalem for a time. Following the capture of Antioch, the Crusaders faced severe supply problems. The soldiers were exhausted from the long siege, and food was scarce. Yet, they did not abandon their goal of reaching Jerusalem. Although their leaders had different political calculations, they ultimately continued the expedition.

Starting in 1096, the Crusader armies began their movement eastward. Initially, the People's Crusade, primarily composed of peasants and commoners, set off first. However, lacking sufficient military preparation, they suffered heavy losses from the Seljuk forces in Asia Minor. Subsequently, the main contingent, led by European nobles and knights such as Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond, and Raymond, gathered in Constantinople. Byzantine Emperor Alexios I demanded that the Crusaders return any recaptured territories to the empire in exchange for the necessary support. In 1097, the Crusaders attacked Nicaea and, in cooperation with the Byzantine army, secured the city. Following this, they also won the Battle of Dorylaeum, laying the groundwork to advance southeast across Asia Minor. After passing Nicaea, the Crusaders navigated the arduous paths of Asia Minor towards Antioch. Within the expeditionary force, the presence of knights and nobles from different regions made establishing a unified command structure difficult. Furthermore, tensions existed between the Byzantine Empire and the Crusaders regarding the return of territories. Despite these challenges, the initial expedition continued with successive victories.